|
Evidence - Discreditable Conduct. R. v. D.S.
In R. v. D.S. (Ont CA, 2024) the Ontario Court of Appeal dismissed a criminal sexual assault appeal, here were "(t)he central issue for the jury was consent".
Here the court considered an evidentiary issue of 'discreditable conduct' (similar fact evidence):[24] It is well established that evidence of bad character or discreditable conduct of the accused beyond what is alleged in the indictment is presumptively inadmissible. To present such evidence, the Crown must show that the purpose of presenting this evidence to the trier of fact goes beyond demonstrating the accused’s general propensity to commit acts forming the subject matter of the charge. The Crown must show that the probative value of the evidence in relation to a live issue in the trial outweighs its prejudicial effect: see R. v. Handy, 2002 SCC 56, [2002] 2 S.C.R. 908; R. v. J.H., 2020 ONCA 165, at paras. 52-55.
....
[34] The evidence was clearly relevant, and relevance was rightly conceded by the appellant’s counsel on appeal. On the Crown’s application to admit evidence of prior discreditable conduct, it was presumed, based on the appellant’s police statement, that his defence would be honest but mistaken belief in communicated consent. This defence, which was indeed put to the jury at the appellant’s trial, is only available in circumstances where the accused took reasonable steps to ascertain whether the complainant was consenting. Such steps must be reasonable in the circumstances then known to the accused: R. v. Barton, 2019 SCC 33, [2019] 2 S.C.R. 579, at para. 104; R. v. Alboukhari, 2013 ONCA 581, 310 O.A.C. 305, at paras. 40-44. As a result, the trial judge reasonably concluded that, in the circumstances of this case, the fact that two years before the alleged offence the complainant explained to the appellant that she was not interested in sexual activity with him because they were like brother and sister was relevant and properly formed part of the evidentiary mix that the jury was entitled to consider. . R. v. T.J.F.
In R. v. T.J.F. (SCC, 2024) the Supreme Court of Canada dismissed a Crown appeal, here in relation to charges for "trafficking in persons .... and receiving a material benefit from it, contrary to ss. 279.01(1) and 279.02(1)" of the CCC.
Here the court considers 'past discreditable conduct' (aka 'similar fact' or 'bad character' evidence):(a) Past Discreditable Conduct Evidence and Its Exclusionary Rule
[74] Generally, when judging whether an accused is guilty of an offence, all relevant evidence is admissible unless it is barred by a specific exclusionary rule (R. v. Goldfinch, 2019 SCC 38, [2019] 3 S.C.R. 3, at para. 30; R. v. Robertson, 1987 CanLII 61 (SCC), [1987] 1 S.C.R. 918, at p. 941; R. v. Arp, 1998 CanLII 769 (SCC), [1998] 3 S.C.R. 339, at para. 38). Relevant evidence is evidence that has “some tendency as a matter of logic and human experience” to make the fact in issue for which it is advanced more likely than it would be in the absence of that evidence (R. v. White, 2011 SCC 13, [2011] 1 S.C.R. 433, at para. 36, citing D. M. Paciocco and L. Stuesser, The Law of Evidence (5th ed. 2008), at p. 31; see also R. v. Schneider, 2022 SCC 34, at para. 39; R. v. Watson, 1996 CanLII 4008 (ON CA), 50 C.R. (4th) 245 (Ont. C.A.), at para. 33).
[75] Past discreditable conduct evidence is evidence of the accused’s misconduct beyond what is alleged in the indictment (R. v. Handy, 2002 SCC 56, [2002] 2 S.C.R. 908, at para. 31). It can be subsumed under the general category of evidence that reflects badly on the accused’s character (D. M. Paciocco, P. Paciocco and L. Stuesser, The Law of Evidence (8th ed. 2020), at p. 66; see also M. Vauclair, T. Desjardins and P. Lachance, Traité général de preuve et de procédure pénales 2024 (31st ed. 2024), at paras. 40.50-40.52).
[76] Bad character evidence is generally inadmissible (R. v. B. (C.R.), 1990 CanLII 142 (SCC), [1990] 1 S.C.R. 717, at p. 732), because it risks triggering general propensity inferences, which are impermissible (p. 744, per Sopinka J., dissenting; Vauclair, Desjardins and Lachance, at para. 40.51). This exclusionary rule also seeks to guard against a related human tendency to “punish the accused for past misconduct by finding that accused guilty of the offence charged”, and to avoid deflecting the attention of the trier of fact “from the main purpose of their deliberations which is the transaction charged” (R. v. D. (L.E.), 1989 CanLII 74 (SCC), [1989] 2 S.C.R. 111, at p. 128).
[77] Not all discreditable conduct evidence is subject to the exclusionary rule. Bad character evidence, and especially discreditable conduct evidence, must go beyond what is alleged in the indictment to be presumptively inadmissible (Handy, at para. 31; see also Makin v. Attorney-General for New South Wales, [1894] A.C. 57 (P.C.), at p. 65; M. Gourlay et al., Modern Criminal Evidence (2022), at p. 282). If it is covered by the indictment, the Crown can prove it “no matter how badly this may reflect on the character of the accused” (Paciocco, Paciocco and Stuesser, at p. 66). . R. v. Chizanga
In R. v. Chizanga (Ont CA, 2024) the Ontario Court of Appeal dismissed a murder appeal on all the advanced arguments.
Here the court sets the SOR for appeals regarding similar fact (aka 'prior discreditable conduct') evidence:(vi) Standard of review
[32] While the admissibility of evidence of Prior Discreditable Conduct involves the determination of a legal issue, it necessarily requires the exercise of judicial discretion. The trial judge is required to engage deeply with the evidence in order to determine the probative value and prejudicial effect of the Prior Discreditable Conduct evidence, and then determine whether the probative value sufficiently outweighs the prejudicial effect such that the evidence should be admitted. Thus, provided the trial judge applies the correct legal principles and they have not misapprehended the evidence, appellate courts will defer to the trial judge’s assessment of where the balance falls between probative value and prejudicial effect, unless the result of the analysis is unreasonable: R. v. Stubbs, 2013 ONCA 514, 300 C.C.C. (3d) 181, at para. 58. This deferential standard is appropriate given the “judge’s advantage of being able to assess on the spot the dynamics of the trial and the likely impact of the evidence on the jurors”: R. v. Shearing, 2002 SCC 58, [2002] 3 S.C.R. 33, at para. 73.
[33] Where evidence of Prior Discreditable Conduct is admitted, appellate review of jury instructions on such evidence must take a functional approach by examining the alleged errors in the context of the evidence, the entire charge, and the trial as a whole: R. v. Lozada, 2024 SCC 18, at para. 14. The ultimate question is whether the instructions adequately equip the jury to decide the case before them: R. v. Abdullahi, 2023 SCC 19, 483 D.L.R. (4th) 1, at paras. 34-37; R. v. Goforth, 2022 SCC 25, 470 D.L.R. (4th) 617, at paras. 20-22. . R. v. Chizanga
In R. v. Chizanga (Ont CA, 2024) the Ontario Court of Appeal dismissed a murder appeal on all the advanced arguments.
Here the court considers 'prior discreditable conduct' evidence (aka 'similar fact evidence'), and a related jury charge:(i) The Handy framework for the admission of prior discreditable conduct
[17] While the admissibility of prior discreditable conduct has been judicially considered on countless occasions, the governing legal framework remains that set out by the Supreme Court of Canada over two decades ago in the seminal case of R. v. Handy, 2002 SCC 56, [2002] 2 S.C.R. 908.
[18] Handy affirms the long-established rule that evidence of the accused’s prior discreditable conduct is presumptively inadmissible. The policy basis for this general exclusionary rule is that the potential prejudicial effect of such propensity evidence may overwhelm its probative value. The danger is that the trier of fact will convict the accused simply because they believe them to be a person of “bad character” who would likely have committed the offences in question. This impermissible chain of reasoning would undermine the presumption of innocence, which requires that a person may only be convicted where the Crown has proven the specific allegations of misconduct beyond a reasonable doubt. As Doherty J.A. put it succinctly in R. v. Batte, “an accused must be tried for what he or she did and not for who he or she is”: (2000), 2000 CanLII 5751 (ON CA), 49 O.R. (3d) 321 (C.A.), at para. 100.
[19] Yet as Handy also affirms, this general exclusionary rule is not absolute. Depending on the purposes for which the evidence is proffered and the strength of the inferences that can be drawn from it, the probative value of the evidence may exceed any prejudicial effect it may have. In these circumstances, “propensity evidence” is nevertheless properly admitted because it goes beyond showing a mere general disposition of the accused and is more probative than prejudicial in relation to a live issue at trial: Handy, at para. 71.
[20] Handy, at para. 57, further rejected a “categories” approach to the admission of evidence of prior discreditable conduct, under which different legal tests would apply to different categories or types of such evidence. To the contrary, Handy establishes that the admissibility of evidence of prior discreditable conduct must always be determined on the basis of whether the probative value of the evidence outweighs its prejudicial effect.
(ii) Assessing the “probative value” of prior discreditable conduct evidence
[21] Under the Handy framework, the “probative value” of evidence of prior discreditable conduct requires a consideration of whether the fact that the accused acted in a discreditable way on one or more occasions (“Prior Discreditable Conduct”) makes it more or less likely that the accused acted in a particular way on a different occasion (“Live Conduct”), where the proof of the Live Conduct is a material issue at trial.[1] The Prior Discreditable Conduct is probative of the Live Conduct if it renders it more or less probable that the Live Conduct is true than would be the case without evidence of the Prior Discreditable Conduct.
[22] This understanding of probative value makes plain that the probative value of the Prior Discreditable Conduct cannot be analysed in the abstract. Rather, probative value arises from the relationship between the Prior Discreditable Conduct and Live Conduct. Probative value becomes more cogent where there is a close connection or “nexus” between the Prior Discreditable Conduct and Live Conduct since, in these circumstances, proof of the Prior Discreditable Conduct makes it more likely that the Live Conduct is also true. Conversely, where that connection or nexus is general or tenuous the probative value of the Prior Discreditable Conduct is diminished, since proof of that Prior Discreditable Conduct may tell us little or nothing about whether the Live Conduct occurred.
[23] The probative value of the Prior Discreditable Conduct further depends upon the degree to which the Live Conduct is a disputed issue at trial. Those disputed issues are derived from the facts alleged by the Crown and the defences advanced or reasonably anticipated. Where the existence of the Live Conduct is a minor feature of the Crown’s case or is a matter that has been conceded by the accused, the probative value of the Prior Discreditable Conduct will be weak or non-existent even if the Prior Discreditable Conduct tends to conclusively establish the Live Conduct: Handy, at para. 74. For this reason, Handy emphasizes the importance of identifying the live issues at trial and of explaining how the evidence which the Crown seeks to admit assists in resolving those live issues.
[24] Evidence of Prior Discreditable Conduct need not prove conclusively, or even make it more probable than not, that the Live Conduct also occurred. The Prior Discreditable Conduct is probative of the Live Conduct as long as it makes it more or less likely that the Live Conduct occurred: Handy, at paras. 94-97; R. v. Luciano, 2011 ONCA 89, 267 C.C.C. (3d) 16, at para. 205.
[25] In some cases, the existence of Prior Discreditable Conduct may itself be in dispute, or the evidence relating to it may be unclear or doubtful. In such a case, the court must necessarily consider the strength of the evidence relating to the Prior Discreditable Conduct and consider whether such frailties reduce or eliminate its probative value: Handy, at paras. 133-35; R. v. C. (Z.W.), 2021 ONCA 116, 155 O.R. (3d) 129, at para. 98.
[26] Handy helpfully set out a non-exhaustive list of factors relevant in determining the degree of connection or nexus between the Prior Discreditable Conduct and the Live Conduct. These factors include: the proximity in time between the Prior Discreditable Conduct and the Live Conduct; any similarities in detail between them; the number of times that each occurred and the circumstances surrounding those occurrence(s); and any distinctive features unifying the different events. . R. v. Abdulle
In R. v. Abdulle (Ont CA, 2023) the Court of Appeal briefly considered evidence of 'prior discreditable conduct':[12] The evidence of the prior incidents was, as the trial judge held, a form of prior discreditable conduct and its admission was governed by the test set out in R. v. Handy, 2002 SCC 56, [2002] 2 S.C.R. 908. That test requires a trial judge to determine whether the probative value of the evidence outweighed its prejudicial effect. ... . R. v. Houle
In R. v. Houle (Ont CA, 2022) the Court of Appeal comments on the use of discreditable conduct in evidence:[15] In my view, the trial judge erred in law by excluding the prior incident evidence “because it does not disclose evidence of ‘prior discreditable conduct’”. The fact that prior conduct evidence is not discreditable is not a legally appropriate basis for exclusion. As Charron J.A. explained in R. v. B. (L.) (1997), 1997 CanLII 3187 (ON CA), 35 O.R. (3d) 35 (C.A.), at pp. 45-46, leave to appeal refused, [1997] S.C.C.A. No. 524, the inquiry into whether prior conduct evidence is discreditable does not determine admissibility. Instead, it points the way to the admissibility rules that govern. If the prior conduct evidence is found to be discreditable and may thereby prejudice the accused, this will trigger the application of the similar fact evidence rule expressed in Handy, at p. 932. If, on the other hand, prior conduct evidence is not discreditable, the Handy rule will not have to be considered further, and the prior conduct evidence, if relevant, will be prima facie admissible. . R. v. J.W.
In R. v. J.W. (Ont CA, 2022) the Court of Appeal the court considers extensively the evidence law of 'discreditable conduct', apparently an uncertain form of similar fact evidence:(1) The Governing Principles on the Admissibility of Discreditable Conduct Evidence
[14] This appeal requires this court to make another foray into what Dean Wigmore called, in 1940, “a vast morass of authority that was hopeless to reconcile” on the admissibility of discreditable conduct evidence.[2] The morass is vaster today.
(a) Defining Discreditable Conduct Evidence
[15] Discreditable conduct evidence is evidence that:(a) tends to show that the accused has committed an offence that is not the subject matter of the charge or charges before the court; or
(b) tends to show behaviour on the part of the accused, either through prior or subsequent acts, records, statements or possessions,
(c) and which, in the opinion of the court, would be viewed with disapproval by a reasonable person.[3] [16] This definition is apt because the discreditable conduct in this case – public nudity – relates to a charge that was not the subject matter of the charges before the court and that a reasonable person would view with disapproval.
(b) The Exclusionary Rule
[17] The rule is most simply expressed by McLachlin J. (as she then was):[E]vidence which is adduced solely to show that the accused is the sort of person likely to have committed an offence is, as a rule, inadmissible. Whether the evidence in question constitutes an exception to this general rule depends on whether the probative value of the proposed evidence outweighs its prejudicial effect.[4] In other words, there is a “general exclusionary rule” against the admission of evidence “going merely to disposition”.[5] The Supreme Court repeated this language in Handy, which continues to be the seminal decision and governing precedent.[6]
[18] The rule exists, said Binnie J. in Handy, because: “[t]he evidence, if believed, shows that an accused has discreditable tendencies,” so that the trier of fact might convict on that basis alone, with the prospect that “[i]n the end, the verdict may be based on prejudice rather than proof, thereby undermining the presumption of innocence”. This would be wrong: “[t]he forbidden chain of reasoning is to infer guilt from general disposition or propensity.”[7]
[19] In order to overcome the presumption of inadmissibility, the Crown has to establish, on the balance of probabilities, that the probative value of the proposed evidence outweighs its prejudicial effect.
(c) Methodology
[20] An orderly methodology can be extracted from the cases and should guide trial judges in their assessment of the admissibility of discreditable conduct evidence.[8]
(i) Defining the Issue
[21] The first step is to define with specificity the issue to which the evidence is asserted to be relevant because “[p]robative value cannot be assessed in the abstract”.[9] Binnie J. noted in Handy that: “[t]he utility of the evidence lies precisely in its ability to advance or refute a live issue pending before the trier of fact”.[10]
(ii) Identifying the Probative Value of the Discreditable Conduct
[22] The second step is to assess the probative value of the evidence. When evidence disclosing the accused’s discreditable conduct is offered, it is said to be probative because it exhibits similarity to the conduct underlying the charges faced by the accused. That is the way that the trial judge in this case approached the evidence of discreditable conduct, as will be discussed in more detail below. While the usual form of discreditable conduct evidence is “similar fact evidence” or “similar act evidence” as seen, for example in the cross-count application in this case, the principles laid out in Handy are applicable to discreditable conduct evidence beyond similar fact evidence.[11]
[23] The assessment of probative value will vary from case to case. Identity cases are different from cases concerning motive, for example. The two critical elements are connectedness and similarity, as noted by Zarnett J.A. in R. v. Tsigirlash[12]. There must be a:logical “nexus established between the evidence of similar acts and the offence that the evidence is offered to prove”: MacCormack, at para. 49. Where the logical nexus depends on the similarity of the similar acts to the act charged, the probative value of the evidence will increase with the degree of similarity, because the probability that the similarity is a result of coincidence will decrease. The court must be satisfied that the “objective improbability of coincidence” has been established: R. v. Arp, 1998 CanLII 769 (SCC), [1998] 3 S.C.R. 339, at para. 48. This analysis cannot be done in the abstract, but only on the basis of specifically-identified similar acts.[13] [24] However, the Supreme Court has cautioned that:The judge’s task is not to add up similarities and dissimilarities and then, like an accountant, derive a net balance. At microscopic levels of detail, dissimilarities can always be exaggerated and multiplied. This may result in distortion. At an excessively macroscopic level of generality, on the other hand, the drawing of similarities may be too facile.[14] [25] The similarities can be circumstantial. This court held in R. v. S.C.[15], that “in sexual assault cases, similar circumstances are often more compelling than similarities or dissimilarities in conduct”. The circumstantial evidence showed that the accused had a “situation-specific propensity to seek out young females connected by family relationships”[16], which provided the evidence with sufficient probative value to be admitted. Watt J.A. stated in R. v. J.M.[17]:Where the evidence of similar acts is summoned in support of proof of the actus reus, it is not an invariable requirement that there be a strong peculiarity or unusual distinctiveness underlying the events being compared: Handy at para. 81. The cogency of evidence of similar acts may arise from the repetitive and predictable nature of an accused's conduct in closely defined circumstances. (iii) Identifying the Prejudicial Effects of the Discreditable Conduct
[26] The third step is to assess the prejudicial effect of the discreditable conduct evidence. Evidence showing the accused has committed an offence that is not the subject matter of the charge before the court can give rise to two forms of prejudice on the part of the trier of fact: “moral prejudice” and “reasoning prejudice”.
[27] On the one hand, “moral prejudice” identifies “the risk of convicting the accused because he is a ‘bad person’ rather than based on proof that he committed this offence” for which he is being tried.[18] On the other hand, “reasoning prejudice” specifies the risk that a trier of fact will be distracted from a “proper focus on the charge itself aggravated by the consumption of time in dealing with allegations of multiple incidents…in divergent circumstances rather than the single offence charged”.[19]
[28] Binnie J. stated in Handy that “distraction” as part of reasoning prejudice can take different forms. One form is emotional: the similar facts may raise “in the minds of the jury sentiments of revulsion and condemnation which might well deflect them from the rational, dispassionate analysis upon which the criminal process should rest”.[20] (In my view a similar dynamic applies to a judge acting as a trier of fact.) Binnie J. noted that: “[t]he accused has a limited opportunity to respond” and is not “allowed to counter evidence of discreditable conduct with similar fact evidence in support of his or her credibility”.[21] This can give rise to a trial fairness problem. Binnie J. observed that “the practical realities of the trial process reinforce the prejudice inherent in the poisonous nature of the propensity evidence itself”. [22]
[29] Another form of reasoning prejudice is when the trial focuses on the discreditable conduct itself, as a kind of trial within a trial, which can lengthen and complicate the trial, and distract the trier of fact from the issues on which liability turns.[23]
[30] In light of the rule and the dangers that the admission of discreditable conduct evidence pose, trial judges should assess the prejudicial effect from three perspectives: moral prejudice, reasoning prejudice, and the presence of any factors that might reduce the impact of prejudice in the specific circumstances of the case.
[31] The first perspective of “moral prejudice” requires the trial judge in a judge-alone trial to self-instruct against the tendency to infer guilt based upon what Handy called the “forbidden chain of reasoning…from general disposition or propensity”.[24] However, Paciocco et al. observe that “self-instruction by judges can reduce, but will not eliminate, the risk of moral prejudice.”[25] They add that: “[s]ince the extent to which restricted admissibility doctrines can prevent moral prejudice is limited, courts must maintain a high awareness of the potential prejudicial effect of admitting similar fact evidence, particularly where the similar fact conduct is reprehensible”.[26]
[32] There is less moral prejudice when the similar acts in question are other counts on the indictment, and therefore, more moral prejudice where the discreditable conduct is outside of the facts in the case: R. v. J.M., per Watt. J.A., at para. 87, and R. v. J.H.[27], per van Rensburg J.A., at para. 24.
[33] The second perspective to be assessed is the reasoning prejudice posed in the specific circumstances of the case. This focuses both on the emotional form of reasoning provoked by the discreditable conduct, and also on the distraction from the facts in issue in the case that trying the issue of discreditable conduct might encourage.
[34] The third perspective is whether there are ways in which the possible prejudicial effects can be mitigated in the circumstances of the case. It has been said by this court that the risk of prejudice is “considerably reduced” in judge-alone trials.[28] But Paciocco et al. note that: “there is controversy over how much lower the risk of prejudice is in judge-alone trials”.[29] They add that: “[e]ven judges can struggle to overcome the tainting effect of discreditable information and may give it undue focus during a trial”.[30] This observation is true to experience. Judges can by training and experience steel themselves against moral and reasoning prejudice, but only if they actively advert to the very point in the moment of decision.
[35] While the prospect that the accused might be able to testify in order to allay the prejudicial effects has been suggested to be a mitigating factor, this is doubtful, given what Binnie J. described in Handy as the “poisonous nature” of the evidence.[31] Further, admitting the discreditable conduct evidence might effectively force the accused to testify in a case where doing so might be inadvisable for other reasons.
(iv) Weighing Probative Value Against Prejudicial Effect
[36] The fourth step in the methodology is to weigh the probative value of the discreditable conduct evidence against its prejudicial effects. Although this step is sometimes called a “balancing”, that is not an apt metaphor because, as Binnie J. noted in Handy: “[t]he two variables do not operate on the same plane”.[32] The two are actually incommensurable. Nonetheless, as Binnie J. observed, even though “probative value and prejudice pull in opposite directions” in addressing the admissibility issue, “their conflicting demands must be resolved”.[33] Generally, the more highly probative the evidence, the more likely it is that the interests of justice will require it to be admitted because of society’s interests in getting to the truth of the charges. However, the interests of both society and the accused in a fair trial process require that the dangers of propensity evidence be taken extremely seriously; the criminal justice system “should not (and does not) take lightly the dangers of misapplied propensity evidence”.[34]
|
